Jerusalem, a city with 3700 years of history

My family and I are visiting Israel and the city that has struck me the most has been Jerusalem. Not only because of the vast quantity of history and events that are related to it, but also because of it's extraordinary beauty and the fact that it is not like any other city. From the ramparts of the old town in Jerusalem, one can see not only sea but also desert; the thousands of graves on the mount of olives presents an abstract side to a city; the many many religions all representing themselves with the most gorgeous monuments (Russian orthodox, Mormons, Catholics, Jews, Muslims and all of their sub-categories!!); there are so many things that make the city mysterious and glorious. 

My little description:

(Placed in the old town)

In front I see the modern side of town with a pretty windmill; all is white. Around me golden domes, crosses upon churches. The ramparts, huge and magnificent made of massive blocks of stone. I run and lose myself in a small road. My favourite song is playing, the sun is shining and it is Christmas. I pass a great big arch, and continue to another alley. To my left passes a gorgeous convent made of white yellow stone with a garden and lovely gates. I keep going. It is so peaceful. I arrive at the steps that used to lead to Herode's castle and I tell myself how lucky I am to be in such a historical city. 

The following is a brief history of Jerusalem:

The following list of twenty-one dates is a summary of the 3,700-year-old relationship of the Jewish people to Jerusalem.

1738 BCE The first Jew goes to Jerusalem

Abraham, the founding father of the Jewish people, was sent by God to Israel. After arriving in Israel, Abraham went to Jerusalem where he received a blessing from king Melchizedek.

1676 BCE The binding of Isaac

One of the most important events in early Jewish history was when Abraham almost sacrificed his son Isaac. This took place on Mt. Moriah in Jerusalem.

1590 BCE Jacob’s dream

One of the most important experiences in the life of Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, was his mystical dream about a ladder that reached to heaven. This dream took place in Jerusalem.

866 BCE Jerusalem becomes the capitol of Israel

King David established Jerusalem as the capitol city of Israel.

825 BCE The first Temple in Jerusalem

King Solomon built the first Temple in Jerusalem. The Temple stood for 400 years until being destroyed by the Babylonians.

423 BCE Destruction of first Temple

The Babylonians conquered Israel, destroyed the Temple and exiled the Jews 

352 BCE The second Temple in Jerusalem

The Temple was rebuilt and stood for another 400 years. 

70 CE The second Temple is destroyed

The Romans destroyed the second Temple.

312 Christianity expels Jews from Jerusalem

The Christians ruled Israel for 300 years and made it illegal for Jews to live in Jerusalem.

638 The Muslims conquered Jerusalem

The Muslims conquered Israel and Jerusalem. Though they allowed Jews to move back into Jerusalem, they also built their mosques atop Judaism’s holiest site—the Temple Mount.

1099 Christians return to Jerusalem

The Christians defeat the Muslims and kill all the Jews in Jerusalem.

From the time of the destruction of the Temple, no foreign ruler paid much attention to Jerusalem and it became a poor, run down city that suffered from a lack of clean water, from disease, and from robbers. Despite this, Jews everywhere dreamed of returning to Jerusalem and many literally risked their lives to travel and settle there. The Western Wall, the last remnant of the Temple, was the holiest place in Jerusalem for prayer.

1267 A new synagogue in Jerusalem

The Ramban was a great rabbi who was forced to flee Christian persecution in Spain. He went to Jerusalem where he re-established the first synagogue in 150 years. That synagogue became the center of a small new Jewish community and was used for 300 years.

1500 Rabbi Ovadia of Bartenura

Though Jews were scattered all over the world, many made heroic efforts to move to Israel and settle in Jerusalem. Rabbi Ovadia of Bartenura was a great scholar who moved to Jerusalem.

1517 The Turks conquer Jerusalem

The Turkish empire conquered Israel and Jerusalem and ruled for 400 years until the end or World War I.

1699 Yehuda Hachassid

Rabbi Yehuda Hachassid led 1,000 Jews from Poland to Israel where they settled in Jerusalem. The Yehuda Hachassid synagogue was in use for over 200 years until it was destroyed in1948 by the Jordanians. It is currently being rebuilt.

1742 Rabbi Chaim ibn Attar moves to Jerusalem

Rabbi Chaim Attar, a great scholar and mystic, moved with his family and many of his students from Morocco to Jerusalem.

1777 The Baal Shem Tov

The Baal Shem Tov, founder of the Chassidic movement, inspired many to emigrate to Israel. In 1777, Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk led a group of 300 Russian Jews to Israel.

1809 The Vilna Gaon

Rabbi Eliyahu of Vilna (known as the Vilna Gaon) encouraged his students to move from Lithuania to Israel. From 1809 to the late 1830’s approximately 200 people a year left Lithuania for Israel where most of them settled in Jerusalem. The Vilna Gaon himself tried twice to make the move but was unsuccessful.

1917 The British conquer Jerusalem

England defeated the Turks in World War I and conquered Israel and Jerusalem.

1850 - 1948 The great return to Jerusalem

Over the centuries the Jewish population slowly grew until there were 10,000 Jews living in the city in 1850. (There were also 6,000 Arabs and 4,000 Christians living in the city.) At the end of World War I, the British promised to help the Jewish people rebuild a homeland in Israel. By 1948 there were 650,000 Jews living in Israel and 100,000 in Jerusalem.

1948 The Jordanians destroy the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem

In 1948 Israel fought and won the War of Independence, but it lost Jerusalem to the Jordanian forces. All of the Jews who lived within the walls of the ancient city of Jerusalem were either killed or driven out by the Jordanians The Jordanians destroyed all of the synagogues in the city and would not allow any Jews to live in Jerusalem or even visit the Western Wall to pray. Israel established its capitol in the new city of Jerusalem that was outside of the walls of the ancient city of Jerusalem.

1967 The Six-Day War and Jerusalem-Yom Yerushalayim

Though the modern state of Israel was born in 1948, for twenty years, Jews were cut off from the heart of Jerusalem. In the spring of 1967, the Arab countries that surround Israel were planning to attack and destroy the Jewish state. Instead of suffering defeat, Israel won the war in just six days. On June 7, 1967—after almost 2,000 years— Jerusalem was united and the Old City of Jerusalem was once again the capital of the Jewish homeland. The restoration of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel 2,800 years after King David first made it the capital, and 2,000 years after it’s destruction by the Romans, just might be the most incredible event in all of world history.

War and Peace(Vol,1) and Leo Tolstoy

Well, I'm past half way and it is the beginning of the war against Napoleon in 1805 (beginning for the Russians) after Mack's defeat (Austrian). 

I really like it, the book gives a great insight on what the "nobility" in Russia was like. I have read many French historical novels about the nobility of the time, especially under Louis XIV. The main difference, from what I can see, is that the French nobility often see the King, however, in this Russian novel he has only been mentioned as someone to fight for or to have faith in. When I go back to school, I shall ask my teacher about it and see if it is normal. 

I think it should be as Tolstoy, primarily an author, was also a historian, and so his books are backed up by real historical events. 

Leo Tolstoy:

Count Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy was born on September 9, 1828, in his ancestral estate Yasnaya Polyana, South of Moscow, Russia. He was the fourth of five children in a wealthy family of Russian landed Gentry. His parents died when he was a child, and he was brought up by his elder brothers and relatives. Leo Tolstoy studied languages and law at Kazan University for three years. He was dissatisfied with the school and left Kazan without a degree, returned to his estate and educated himself independently. In 1848 he moved to the capital St Petersburg, and was then abruptly called to return to his estate near Moscow, where he inherited 4000 acres of land and 350 serfs. There Tolstoy built a school for his serfs, and acted as a teacher. He briefly went to a Medical School in Moscow, but lost a fortune in gambling, and was pulled out by his brother. He took military training, became an Army officer, and moved to the Caucasus, where he lived a simple life for three years with Cossacs. There he wrote his first novel - "Childhood" (1852), it became a success. With writing "Boyhood" (1854) and "Youth" (1857) he concluded the autobiographical trilogy. In the Crimean War (1854-55) Tolstoy served as artillery commander in the Battle of Sevastopol, and was decorated for his courage. Between the battles he wrote three stories titled "Sevastopol Sketches", that won him wide attention, and a complement from the Czar Aleksandr II. After the war, Tolstoy returned to St. Petersburg, where he enjoyed the friendship of Ivan Turgenev, Nikolai A. Nekrasov, Ivan Goncharov, and other writers. On his trips to Europe, he had discussions with Gertsen in London, and attended Darwin's lectures. In Brussels he had meetings with philosophers Prudhon and Lelewel. Tolstoy undertook a research of schools in Europe, and later he built and organized over 20 schools for poor people in Russia. At that time the secret police began surveillance, and searched his home. In 1862 he married Sofia Andreevna Bers, and fathered 13 children with his wife. Four of their babies died, and the couple raised the remaining nine children. His wife was also his literary secretary, and also contributed to his best works, "War and Peace" (1863-69) and "Anna Karenina" (1873-77). In his "Confession" (1879) Tolstoy revealed his own version of Christianity, blended with socialism, that won him many followers. Tolstoyan communities sprang up in America and Europe, and he assisted the Russian non-Orthodox Christians (Dukhobors) in migrating to USA and Canada. He split from aristocratic class and developed an ascetic lifestyle, becoming a vegetarian, and a farmer. He sponsored and organized free meals for the poor. He transfered his copyright on all of his writings after 1880 to public domain. In his later age Tolstoy was pursuing the path of a wandering ascetic. He corresponded with Mohandas K. Gandhi, who was directly influenced by Tolstoy's "The Kingdom of God is Within You" (1894), which was praised by many nonviolent movements. In 1900 Tolstoy criticized the Tsar's government in a series of publications, calling for separation of Chuch and State. Tsar Nicholas II retaliated through the Church, by expulsion of Tolstoy from Orthodox Cristianity as a "heretic". He fell ill, and suffered from a severe depression; he was suicidal and even had to eliminate all hunting guns from his home, because of his suicidal mode. He was treated by the famous doctor Dahl, and was visited by composer Sergei Rachmaninoff and basso Feodor Chaliapin Sr., who performed for Tolstoy on many occasions. Later he went to convalesce in Yalta, in Crimea, where he spent time with Anton Chekhov and Maxim Gorky. Tolstoy was an obvious candidate for the Nobel Prize in Literature, but was initially omitted by the Nobel Committee for his views. The omission caused a strong response from a group of Swedish writers and artists. They sent an address to Tolstoy, but the writer answered by declining any future prize nomination. In 1902 Tolstoy wrote a letter to the Tsar, calling for social justice, to prevent a civil war, and in 1904, during the Russo-Japanese War, Tolstoy wrote a condemnation of war. The Tsar replied by increasing police surveillance on Tolstoy. In November of 1910 he left his estate, probably taking the path of a wandering ascetic, which he had been pursuing for decades. He left home without explanations and took a train, in which he caught pneumonia, and died at a remote station of Astapovo. He was laid to rest in his estate of Yasnaya Polyana, which was made a Tolstoy National Museum. His youngest daughter, named Alexandra Tolstoy, was the director of the Tolstoy Museum, and was arrested by the Communists five times. She emigrated from Russia to the United States, where she founded the Tolstoy Foundation. She helped many prominent Russian intellectuals, such as Vladimir Nabokov and Sergei Rachmaninoff among many others.

As we can see Tolstoy was quite a man: going from medical studies to lawyer to charity-worker to politician to lawyer! He is one of the people who has written the most about Russian history. Nicholas II's retaliation also demonstrates the Tsar's character: he was very protective of his regime and did not directly tackle criticism, but instead went through the Church. Tolstoy's intelligence is also reflected by his disagreement to the Russo-Japanese War as in the end it did indeed cost Russia thousands of men! 

Hope you found it interesting!! 

The history of the Eiffel Tower

The Eiffel Tower was created for the Exposition Universelle of 1889. It was originally designed by two senior engineers that worked for the Compagnie des Etablissements Eiffel, but was embellished (by various people), until Gustave Eiffel supported the project. The design was exhibited at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name and Eiffel then presented the project to the 'Société des Ingénieurs Civils' and told them that the tower would symbolise
"not only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France's gratitude." (1889 was the centenary of the French Revolution).
In 1886, when Édouard Lockroy was appointed Minister of Trade, a budget was passed on the Exposition and on the 1rst of May, Lockroy announced that the Eiffel Tower would be the centre piece.
The Eiffel Tower was the first substantial iron-based tower in the world, influencing all sky-scrapers that were to come. It took 2 years 2 months and 5 days to complete, a record time, as it had used pre-fabricated metal pieces. In total, the tower was made out of 18000 metal parts, 2.5 million rivets and weighed 7000 tonnes.
Overall, just over a million dollars, but Eiffel had to pay 80% of it, as the government refused to pay for more. In fact, the plan was disliked by many Parisians. Indeed,  a "Committee of Three Hundred" (one member for each metre of the tower's height) was formed, led by the prominent architect Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures of the French arts establishment, including Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet: a petition was sent to Charles Alphand, the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, and was published by Le Temps.

"We, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and passionate devotees of the hitherto untouched beauty of Paris, protest with all our strength, with all our indignation in the name of slighted French taste, against the erection…of this useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower … To bring our arguments home, imagine for a moment a giddy, ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black smokestack, crushing under its barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour Saint-Jacques, the Louvre, the Dome of les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe, all of our humiliated monuments will disappear in this ghastly dream. And for twenty years…we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the hateful column of bolted sheet metal"

Many found the tower garish and vulgar, and found that it clashed with the gorgeous Paris.
For 40 years, the Eiffel Tower was the tallest tower in the world and after only 5 months it had already received 2 million visitors, which enabled Eiffel to repay the loans he had made.
Although the structure was supposed to only stay for 20 years, it was soon discovered that it was the perfect site for a radio antenna, and was used throughout WWI, said to have hindered the German advance into Paris greatly.
 

A touch of FACTS:

• more than 5 million people a year visit it



Toni and I at the Second Level

• 1710 steps

American soldiers gazing at the Tower



Destiny in the Desert Jonathan Dimbleby

The Battle of El Alamein – the stuff of legends and the first major Allied victory of World War 2. The battle that caused Churchill to declare it ‘The first victory and the last defeat’.
On the eve of the battle in 1942, the Allies faced an uncertain future. They had endured nigh on three exhausting years of conflict in the desert, fighting the Axis forces under Rommel, the ‘Desert Fox’. The appointment of General Montgomery seemed little more than one last throw of the dice. But the change in their fortunes was so dramatic it prompted one of Churchill’s most memorable aphorisms: ‘Before Alamein we never had a victory. After Alamein we never had a defeat.’
In this exhilarating account of the road to El Alamein, Jonathan Dimbleby shows how, far from being an unnecessary diversion, the battle marked the climax of a conflict that shaped the outcome of the Second World War. It provides an incredibly vivid portrait of what it was like for the politicians, civil servants, military commanders and soldiers who struggled and sacrificed in war capitals across the world and across the harsh, dusty battlefields.
Drawing on first-hand accounts and official records, from soldiers on the ground and politicians in the know, Dimbleby creates a thrilling narrative that redefines the battle as a tipping point in British fortunes. Published to coincide with the 70th anniversary of the battle, this is a major – and personal - project from Jonathan Dimbleby, whose own father Richard broadcast for the BBC from the desert in 1942.

Source: www.history.co.uk

Great article on the fight between the Japanese and British for the 'jewels' of the British empire Singapore and Hong Kong

http://www.history.co.uk/study-topics/history-of-ww2/singapore-and-hong-kong

How far can we rely on our reason to give us reliable knowledge in two areas of knowledge?

     Reason is the main way of knowing, as, although other ways of knowing, such as sense perception, emotion and language are also important, we rely on reason, which is thinking in a logical way, the most.

    In all areas of knowing, from maths to history, even despite ourselves, we use reasoning. In maths, one can deduce the size of the third side of a right angled triangle. For instance, we know that triangle ABC, is a right angled triangle with sides AB= 3cm and AC= 4cm. We know that according to Pythagorus' theorem that in a right angled triangle, a²= b² + c², where a is the hypotenuse. Therefore, 3² +4² = BC², so BC is 5 cm. This is deductive reasoning as through arguments and premises, we have reached a conclusion. One could argue that the large use of reasoning is only in mathematics or natural sciences as these are the naturally more logical areas of knowledge, in many others the other ways of knowing are more prominent. However, this is untrue, take History as an example: we use lots of deductive reasoning. For example, we know that these sources are all on the Russo-Japanese War. We know that they are written by different people from that era. We therefore know that the truest perspectives are the most repeated ones. For instance, "it was an extremely humiliating defeat".  

    However, reasoning is more prominent in some areas of knowledge, such as maths. This is because logic is key to maths, for instance, if a boat sails 60km at a bearing of 70 degrees, stops at point A and sails for 120km to point B and we know that B is 55km from the starting point. We can find out at what bearing the boat sails from point A to B by using the cosine rule. We use our reason to deduce that the cosine rule has to be used. On the other hand, there are other ways of knowing that are involved in maths, like emotion and language. This can be shown in the way Andrew Wiles discovered the proof to Fermat's last theorem. Emotion drove him to solve it and language helped him communicate with other mathematicians to give him ideas and check that he was correct. Nevertheless, reason is the way of knowing that is used the most in maths, as Andrew Wiles could have solved the theorem without emotion and language but not without reason.

    In other subjects, such as history, however, reason is less used but still needed more than other areas of knowledge. For example, in history, one needs reasoning to assess how truthful sources are. You would take into account the origin, the purpose, and many other things and then use reason to see which one is more reliable. But, the sources would not be communicated without language. Nevertheless, there is not much point reading a source if it is unreliable. For instance, an account by Tsar Nicholas II about the living conditions of the peasants throughout his reign would be unreliable, however, if a historian didn't know that it was by Tsar Nicholas II and that it was therefore unreliable, they may believe it was true and assess the peasants' situation throughout the early 20th century in Russia based on false knowledge.

 

Nelson Mandela: a man who changed the world?

I think it is safe to say that Nelson Mandela was one of the all time key individuals of history and will be forever. His quotes are repeated and applied, his example is followed by all and he has managed to create a more or less united South Africa.

South Africa has 10 other official names in different ethnic languages, which is just one demonstration of the extremely wide variety of ethnicities in the country. Of course, this has called racial unrest many a time, however, Mandela was the principal character who managed to smooth this range of races into one. 

I shan't go through telling you all of Mandela's history, from Robben Island to the ANC to his time as president of South Africa, as you could easily find it anywhere else online. Nevertheless, I will give you his key achievements from my perspective: 

Influenced so many to forgive black/white for what they had done to their family/friends/themselves

Brought the country in unison behind the Springboks (the rugby team) to go on and win the World Cup 

More recently, Mandela has had a huge effect in fighting HIV/AIDS, which his son died from and Mandela believed was another war to win. 

Although other key figures, such as Walter Sisulu, Oliver Tambo and John DeClerc played an important role in ending apartheid, Nelson Mandela influenced both of them and took the leading role in stopping these horrors. As he was able to forgive the whites, it enabled him to discuss and negotiate the end of apartheid with them; with DeClerc and Mandela "sharing" the presidency for a while. Moreover, this ensured that apartheid did not simply switch over, where the blacks would have taken revenge on the whites. 

Invictus

Out of the night that covers me, Black as the Pit from pole to pole, I thank whatever gods may be For my unconquerable soul. In the fell clutch of circumstance I have not winced nor cried aloud. Under the bludgeonings of chance My head is bloody, but unbowed. Beyond this place of wrath and tears Looms but the Horror of the shade, And yet the menace of the years Finds, and shall find, me unafraid. It matters not how strait the gate, How charged with punishments the scroll. I am the master of my fate: I am the captain of my soul.

William Ernest Henley This is the superb poem that is in the movie invictus that helped Mandela get through his years in prison.  Facts about Nelson Mandela you may not have known: the name 'Nelson' was given to him by his teacher, his original name was Rolihlahla Mandela studied law at university and attended the best education available to black people at the time.